Piazza Navona has always been a gathering place. Originally, people gathered because the site was a stadium built by the Roman emperor Domitian in 86 AD. The U-shaped stadium, called Circus Agonalis, seated around 15,000 spectators and was used for various entertainments such as foot races and even mock sea battles. Like most ancient Roman monuments, the stadium fell into ruin and its stones were taken to use for other building projects. However, because houses and other buildings were later built on the foundations, the piazza retained shape of the Circus Agonalis. Over 300 yards long and 60 yards wide, Piazza Navona is uniquely shaped compared to other piazzas. Later, Piazza Navona remained a gathering place since it housed a popular market (that was moved to the Campo de Fiori) and was the site of many public festivities. Romans would even go to the piazza just for the “amusement of parading in public wearing the finest that Rome’s dressmakers and tailors could supply” (Morrissey 184).
The Piazza Navona was always a popular Roman destination, but it was the Pamphili family, namely Giambattista Pamphili, that transformed the piazza into what we see today. The Pamphili lived in Rome for centuries and had accumulated near Piazza Navona and Piazza Pasquino. They claimed they were descendents of Amanzio Pamphili, a follower of Charlemagne in the ninth century. Although they began as low nobility, they were able to rise to a higher status when Sixtus IV promoted Antonio Pamphili to Procurator Fiscal for the Papal States, a position of both trust and power within the Vatican. The Pamphilis’ impact on Piazza Navona increased with the arrival of Giambattista Pamphili. When Giambattista Pamphili was born in 1574, the Pamphili already had a palace in Piazza Navona. However, the family saw the need to renovate it as Giambattista slowly gained power within the Church. After Pope Urban VIII Barberini died, Giambattista Pamphili was elected pope as a compromise between the French and Spanish factions in the conclave. He accepted the powerful position on September 15, 1644, and took the name of Innocent X. The newly-elected pope started making plans for his new Palazzo almost immediately, hiring Girolamo and Carlo Rainaldi to design it. Innocent also called in Francesco Borromini, Bernini’s rival architect, to help with the project in 1646.
As the Pamphili palace grew, Innocent X decided he needed to change the character of Piazza Navona as well. Pope Gregory VIII had commissioned fountains at the north (Fountain of Neptune) and south (Fountain of the Moor). The fountains were designed by Giacomo Della Porta, and the Fountain of the Moor had been renovated by Bernini. While the ends of the piazza housed fountains, at the center of Piazza Navona stood a lowly rectangular stone basin, used as a drinking trough for horses and donkeys. Since this was clearly unacceptable, Innocent X decreed that water from the Acqua Vegine be redirected to Piazza Navona before the Trevi Fountain, a then-forgotten project of Urban VIII, to provide water for a new fountain in 1647. Borromini, apparently a favorite of the pope, was appointed the considerable job of extending the aqueduct. In the meantime, a large obelisk, which had been brought to ancient Rome from Egypt, was discovered in pieces near the Appian Way. Innocent X inspected it in April, 1647 and decided to incorporate it into his new fountain.
Innocent X asked several artists to submit designs for his new fountain. According to Howard Hibbert, “Every artist worth the name was invited” to submit a design, except for Gianlorenzo Bernini (Morrissey 204). Bernini was out of favor with the pope for several reasons. First, Innocent X did not want to hire an artist so closely associated with the previous pope, Urban VIII. Since Urban was notorious for his nepotism and had been hated by the people, Innocent felt the need to distance himself from him. Urban also held a grudge against the Barberini pope for depleting the papal treasury. Additionally, Bernini had gained a bad reputation due to a disaster at St. Peter’s involving. Appointed to build two towers on the basilica, Bernini was careful to check the already-made foundations for the towers to make sure they were stable enough to support the towers. Although the foundations were reported sound, while they were building the first tower cracks appeared in the structure. The towers had to be taken down, and the project was abandoned. Though Bernini had had the foundations checked, he was blamed for the blunder and subsequently disgraced.
In spite of this, Bernini was not discouraged. With the help of his friend Niccolo Ludovisi, Bernini was able to win the favor of the pope. Ludovisi reportedly asked Bernini to make a model for the Piazza Navona fountain even though the pope had not requested it. Ludovisi, who was in good favor with the pope as he had just married the pope’s niece, strategically placed the model in Innocent’s palace so that he would pass by it after a feast. Rumored to have been made of silver, the model so intrigued Innocent X that when he saw it that he looked at it for half an hour and then exclaimed, “We must need employ Bernini: although there are many who would not wish it; the only way to resist him is not to see his work.” Bernini was accepted the commission for the fountain on July 10, 1648. This was much to the disappointment of Borromini, who was not only already working on the aqueduct for the fountain, but who had also created the original design of the four river gods under the obelisk.
The obelisk was transported into Rome in the summer of 1648, and work on the fountain began. The repair of the obelisk and sculpting of the travertine base alone took a year—the obelisk was raised onto the base in August of 1649. Construction of the fountain was very expensive and was reported to have been as high as 29,000 scudi, which would have bought 290,000 loaves of bread. To fund this project, Innocent X imposed a tax on all Roman property. This made the project very unpopular among the people, especially when many of Rome’s inhabitants were going hungry. These sentiments inspired the rhyme:
Noi volemo altro che guglie et fontane
Pane, volemo, pane, pane, pane!
(It is not obelisks and fountains we want,
But bread, bread, bread!)
Despite the controversy surrounding the fountain, Innocent X was ecstatic and very involved in the project. During construction, the area around the fountain was closed off by a large screen. Frequently, Innocent X would stop by and go beyond the screen to survey the progress. On one such visit, the pope and his attendants stayed for over an hour admiring the almost-finished work. Ready to leave, the pope casually asked Bernini when he would be able to see the water fall from the spouts. Bernini claimed he needed time to put everything in order, and that he could not tell the pope on such a short notice. So, the pope gave his blessing and prepared to leave. However, when Innocent X was almost outside of the enclosure, Bernini gave a signal and the fountain burst to life with water gushing out of its spouts. The pope was so overjoyed that he told Bernini, “In giving us this unexpected joy, Bernini, you have added ten years to our life.” Although the pope died five years later, making his statement somewhat ironic, it still serves as a testament to Bernini’s ability to charm others.
The Four Rivers Fountain was unveiled on June 14, 1651 to both praise and criticism. Many were outraged that the pope had kicked the sellers from the market out of the piazza to reserve it for the carriages of the great and for costly private festivities. Nevertheless, Piazza Navona retained its use as a popular gathering place. In the summer, the drains would clog and the fountain was allowed to overflow, until the piazza was filled with water. Carriages had a hard time navigating the flooded area, but the public loved to play in the “Lago di Piazza Navona.”
Although today’s viewer might not immediately understand the symbolism behind the Four Rivers Fountain, they can at least appreciate its beauty. The 54-foot tall obelisk, made from Egyptian granite and covered in hieroglyphs, ascends from the middle of a travertine base. The obelisk is topped by a Pamphili dove holding a sprig of olive branch in its beak. On the base are both plants and animals carved out of travertine, and four male figures carved from marble. Bernini’s inspiration for the fountain was the nymphaeum, a Greek and Roman grotto-like fountain that usually depicted nymphs relaxing around cascades of water in caverns. The four figures on the base represent four river gods from the greatest rivers of the world, who symbolize the four continents: the Danube for Europe, the Ganges for Asia, the Nile for Africa, and the Rio de la Plata for the Americas. Each river god is characterized by the items, plants, and animals in its surroundings. The Danube, with a horse next to it, holds the Pamphili papal coat of arms—a dove with an olive branch in its beak and three fleurs-de-lis. The Ganges River is accompanied by a palm tree and also holds an oar, to represent that the Ganges River is navigable.
Accompanied by a lion, the Nile is veiled to indicate that the source of the river was at that point unknown. Finally, the Rio de la Plata, shown with a serpent, has coins scattered about him to symbolize the wealth of the New World. The Rio de la Plata is also accompanied by a dragon-like animal. This animal was supposed to be an armadillo, native to the Americas.
From its absurd appearance, however, it is obvious Bernini did not know what an armadillo looked like and had to use a little creative license in its design. Each of the four statues is contorted, forming a sort of spiral and encouraging the viewer to walk around the fountain.
The symbolism runs far deeper than just that of the river gods reclining around a fountain. The hieroglyphs on the obelisk designate it as dedicated to the sun, but when crowned with a cross obelisks become a bearer of the cross. This makes the obelisk a symbol of Christ or the Christian faith in general. Because the Fountain of Four River’s obelisk is crowned with the Pamphili dove, a symbol of both peace and the Pamphili, the obelisk and four river gods represent all of Christendom under the peaceful rule of the Pamphili. Each of the river god’s positions or belongings demonstrates their relationship to Christianity. Both the Danube and the Ganges are holding up the papal coat of arms, illustrating that Europe and Asia are the only continents to which Christianity has spread. Conversely, the Nile is shrouded to indicate it is blind to Christianity.
The Rio de la Plata is leaning backwards to see the dove on top of the obelisk and is holding its arm aloft, as if to salute the Pamphili dove. However, the Rio de la Plata’s position could also be interpreted as one of terror, as if it is shielding itself. This could be in response to the onset of Christianity. However, a rumor spread that the Rio de la Plata’s position is in response to the façade of the church Sant’Agnese, which was renovated by Bernini’s rival Borromini. Since the commission was not given to Borromini until after the Four Rivers Fountain was completed this interpretation cannot be correct, but it is still fun and interesting to think of the Rio de la Plata as expressing horror at Borromini’s church, or perhaps thinking it might fall on him. 
Additionally, the snake behind the Rio de la Plata can be interpreted as both a symbol for evil and rebirth, so that within the context of the fountain it symbolizes evil conquered by the Christian cross and the rebirth of new Christians. Ultimately, the Four Rivers Fountain represents the triumph of the Church (under the rule of the Pamphili) over paganism. The fountain could also be seen as the four Rivers of Paradise, springing forth from the foot of the cross. In this case, the fountain represents the salvation of mankind under the cross. Either way, since the obelisk is topped with the Pamphili dove and the fountain carries two sets of the Pamphili coat of arms, the fountain really represents the triumph of the Pamphili.
Besides the deep and propagandistic symbolism, the Four Rivers Fountain enacts a beautiful illusion. Bernini used intersecting arches in the travertine grotto, so that the viewer can see straight through the center of the base underneath the giant obelisk. Additionally, the cascades of water on the sides seem to widen the structure, and it looks as if the water is also helping to hold up the obelisk. The overall effect is that the obelisk seems nearly weightless, supported by only air and water instead of rock. Considering the obelisk is massive and weighs over 120 tons, this illusion is quite a feat. It also led to some doubts about the fountain’s overall stability. There were many rumors, probably spread by Bernini’s rivals, that the obelisk was unstable and might collapse. Of course, Bernini was aware of this speculation and, confident in his structure, strove to make a statement. One day after a bad storm, a crowd of people came to the Piazza Navona and stood around the fountain, waiting to see if the obelisk would fall. Soon, Bernini arrived at the scene. He began inspecting the fountain and obelisk seriously and thoroughly, as if to make sure it remained sound. Then he tied some string around the obelisk and attached it to the surrounding buildings in the piazza. The piazza was filled with laughter, and the incident serves as another testament to Bernini’s showmanship and charming personality. Obviously, Bernini’s fountain did not collapse then, nor has it ever collapsed, attesting to Bernini’s genius.
Bernini’s Four Rivers Fountain completely transformed Piazza Navona. However, later in life Bernini was disappointed with his work. It is reported that years later, as Bernini was driving past the fountain in his carriage, he looked at the fountain, closed his window shutters, and exclaimed, “How ashamed I am to have done so poorly!” Perhaps Bernini was ashamed he stole Borromini’s idea for the fountain, or that he did not carve all of the figures. Or perhaps Bernini was not ashamed at all, and was just hoping to get compliments. Either way, the viewer is not likely to be disappointed by the Four Rivers Fountain.
The Piazza Navona has gone through several transformations. From a stadium, to a market, to even a “lake,” the piazza has always attracted Romans. However, it is Bernini’s Four Rivers Fountain that draws people to it today. Every day the piazza is crowded with street vendors, performers, tourists, and locals, all located around the Four Rivers Fountain. The fountain towers over Piazza Navona, creating a spectacle worthy of an area that even today serves as a gathering place.
Bibliography
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Gregory, Sharon and David L. Bershad: “Pamphili; (1) Pope Innocent X” Grove Art Online. Oxford University Press, July 23, 2007, http://www.groveart.com/
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Morrissey, J. P. The Genius in the Design: Bernini, Borromini, and the Rivalry That Transformed Rome. New York: W. Morrow, 2005.
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Images from "Piazza Navona and the Fountain of Four Rivers: Bernini's Return to Papal Favor" by Katie Ho
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